Auckland expects that we will work together to play our part in meeting the national goal of significantly reduced greenhouse gas emissions (mitigation), and that we will improve energy efficiency, resilience and security and our capacity to adapt to climate change (adaptation).

Ko te aro whakaaro o Tāmaki Makaurau ka mahi tātou ki a tātou, hei mahi whakaheke te hāparapara o te rohe whānui, kātahi ka piki te oranga, ka mau te mārohirohi me ō mātou waia ki tēnei kaupapa

Strategic Direction 8

470_ Our climate is changing globally, regionally and locally. The impacts, already evident, are expected to be even more severe in the future. Although climate change poses risks and uncertainties for Auckland, it also offers opportunities.

471_ Aucklanders have always faced climate-related risks such as heat waves, droughts and tropical storms. While climate change is a natural process, there is now a strong scientific consensus that greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from human activities, particularly the use of fossil fuels, are causing the climate to change at unprecedented rates. Climate change can be defined as “a change of climate that is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and that is, in addition to natural climate variability, observed over comparable time periods.”⁴⁷

472_ Despite growing global efforts to reduce GHG emissions, some climate change is inevitable. Auckland could encounter a range of effects, including changes to temperature and rainfall patterns, more frequent and intense weather events, and accelerated sea-level rise (See Box 8.1).

473_ The risks associated with these climate changes are likely to be wide and far-reaching. Auckland could be affected in three key ways:

• reduced performance of infrastructure and industries directly affected by changes in climate conditions or damaging extreme events
• adverse impacts on biodiversity, natural resources, productivity or changes in market demands for goods and services
• individuals and communities affected by extreme weather, scarce resources and affordability of those resources, health impacts, or migration.

474_ While the projected long-term effects of climate change will become more pronounced in the future, the immediate effects (and our subsequent responses) already pose significant risks and opportunities.

475_ Tackling climate change requires significant reductions in global GHG emissions to reduce the causes and severity of climate change (referred to as ‘mitigation’). We must also develop ways to effectively protect and increase Auckland’s resilience to withstand and recover from the adverse effects of a changing climate, (referred to as ‘adaptation’).

476_ New Zealand’s contribution to global emissions is relatively small. Nevertheless, cities world-wide are taking a leadership role and Auckland is committed to playing its part.

477_ Increasingly stringent international policy affects New Zealand, and may impact upon the marketability of our products and services in key economic sectors and export industries including tourism and agriculture. For example, rising ‘climate awareness’ (and misinformation in some overseas consumer markets about the concept of ‘food miles’) risks undermining the popularity of New Zealand produce.

478_ New Zealand is a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol and has committed to a long-term aspirational goal of reducing New Zealand’s net emissions to 50% of 1990 levels by 2050, as well as a short-term target of between 10% and 20% below 1990 levels by 2020.^* This Plan sets a target for Auckland to achieve a 40% reduction in GHG emissions by 2040 (based on 1990 levels). It has also set the same short- and long-term goals as the Government.

* This commitment is conditional on a global agreement being secured that limits carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2-e) to 450ppm and temperature increases to 2°C, effective rules on forestry, and New Zealand having access to international carbon markets.

479_ Achieving these targets will be challenging. While Auckland’s GHG emissions profile (see Figure 8.1) is different from the rest of New Zealand, trends for both show overall increases. This is largely due to a growth in energy emissions, particularly from electricity generation and transport.

480_ In Auckland, electricity use (stationary energy) and transport are the primary emitters of GHGs and are forecast to increase their emissions (see Figure 8.2). Nationally, agriculture produces a far larger proportion of emissions, with transport accounting for approximately 20% of the total. Growth projections imply that without long-term energy management Auckland will become increasingly reliant on imported energy supplies, and vulnerable to increases in the cost of energy.

481_ While internationally energy is one of the main contributors to GHG emissions, New Zealand already has one of the highest proportions of renewable electricity in the world.

482_ Ongoing technological development and research will give a greater understanding of the risks, uncertainties and opportunities that climate change poses for our economy, environment and way of life. Transitioning to a low-carbon society which can adapt to a changing climate, requires a comprehensive and integrated policy response, and clear and decisive actions.

483_ While there is uncertainty about the timing and exact nature of the impacts of climate change and the costs associated with taking action, the scientific and economic consensus (notably The Stern Review⁴⁸ into The Economics of Climate Change) about climate change tells us that the costs of inaction will be far greater.⁴⁹

484_ Cities and urban areas are estimated to account for 80% of global GHG emissions. In response, cities around the world are leading the way in transitioning to a low-carbon future. Auckland has the skills and capacity to do the same.

485_ Auckland Council recognises the urgency of these critical and interrelated energy and climate change issues. Success in achieving our GHG reduction targets will depend on action by everyone. Auckland Council is committed to working with central government, business and local communities to identify the best policies and approaches to ensure we are ready to deal with the risks, uncertainties and opportunities associated with critical climate change and energy issues.

BOX 8.1 Direct Impacts on Auckland of Climate Change⁵⁰

486_ As New Zealand’s largest and fastest-growing city, reducing Auckland’s emissions while increasing living standards and economic prosperity represents an enormous challenge and a unique opportunity.

487_ Auckland’s two largest sources of emissions are transport (35%) and electricity / stationary energy (31%), which together account for approximately two thirds of our total emissions. For the rest of New Zealand, emissions from agriculture dominate, and transport accounts for only 20% of total emissions. Auckland’s emissions profile (see Figure 8.1) is relatively unusual, particularly when compared to other similarsized cities in Australia and North America. This is partly due to New Zealand’s large renewable energy resource base and the high levels of car usage in Auckland, where transport is a greater source of emissions than electricity.

Figure 8.1 Auckland ’s Emissions Profile

488_ Projections indicate that Auckland’s level of emissions could increase at a faster rate than New Zealand’s. This is based on Auckland’s fast-growing population and associated development, and an economy, urban form and lifestyle reliant on high energy consumption – especially transport and electricity.

489_ Projections suggest there could be a further increase in Auckland’s emissions of 39% by 2031 (based on 1990 levels). This projection is based on a simplistic or naïve ‘Business As Usual’ (nBAU) model of applying current consumption levels to projected population and economic growth (see Figure 8.2).

490_ Other scenarios have been developed to determine potential long-term GHG emission levels, taking into account fuel price and carbon price. These projections indicate that without interventions Auckland’s emissions could increase by up to 46% by 2025. While the New Zealand’s Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS) is the primary mechanism to achieve low-cost national emissions reductions, preliminary independent analysis indicates that additional complementary measures are needed to assist Auckland’s transition to a low-carbon future.

491_ The challenge for Auckland is to separate the link between GHG emissions and development, economic growth, and energy use. This will require a transformation from a fossil fuel-dependent, high energy-using, high-waste society to an ‘eco- or liveable city’. A liveable city is typified by sustainable resource use, a quality compact form, an eco-economy, and transport and energy systems that are efficient, maximise renewable resources and minimise reliance on fossil-based transport fuels.

Figure 8.2 Auckland’s emissions projections based on a naïve ‘Business As Usual’ (nBAU) scenario .*

* Initial independent analysis was based on a 20-year timeframe which has since been extended to 30 years. Further analysis will be undertaken in developing the Auckland ECCM strategy.

492_ To facilitate the transition towards a liveable, low-carbon future, Auckland Council will:

• provide accurate and accessible information that enables and empowers individuals, communities and businesses to make low-carbon choices
• foster commitment and behavioural change to reduce GHG emissions
• put in place the regulatory framework to enable private sector initiatives to reduce GHG emissions at a scale and in a timeframe that is aligned to national and Auckland policy targets
• lead by example in its own operations and services as a catalyst for change.

Directive 8.1

Progress towards the Auckland Plan’s emissions reduction target and take a coordinated approach to transitioning, through green growth, to a sustainable Auckland.

493_ To contribute to this directive, Auckland Council will develop an integrated Energy and Climate Change Mitigation (ECCM) strategy and action plan for adoption in 2012. This will be done in partnership with key industries and partners, and will be implemented through the Council’s Unitary Plan and Long Term Plan where relevant. The ECCM strategy will also inform the development of key strategies, including the Economic Development Strategy, the Auckland Waterfront Development Plan and the Auckland City Centre Master Plan.

494_ The scope and scale of potential actions required to deliver on the Plan’s aspirational targets are highlighted in Box 8.2. The relative contribution of these options in delivering on a 40% reduction target is shown in Figure 8.3. The timeframe to achieve this target has been extended to 2040, due to the need to phase investment in accordance with the Auckland Plan. The urgency for decisive action now is supported by the short-term target to achieve a 10-20% reduction in GHG emissions by 2020 (based on 1990 levels). This will help to drive a prioritised set of actions that will be developed and delivered through the ECCM strategy. A long-term target (50% by 2050) aligns with national targets. The emission reduction targets set through the Auckland Plan will be subject to periodic review.

495_ The ECCM strategy will build on a range of existing initiatives and commitment by Auckland Council and others. These include:

• developing a quality compact Auckland (see Section D: Auckland’s High Level Development Strategy and Chapter 10: Urban Auckland) supported by sustainable transport choices – including public transport, walking and cycling options, and rail electrification (see Chapter 13: Auckland’s Transport)
• the development of an Auckland urban design compendium to support good design in all development; and improving the quality and energy efficiency of our homes through the “retrofit your home” programme (see Chapter 10: Urban Auckland)
• minimising our waste through the development of Auckland’s waste minimisation and management plan (see Chapter 7: Auckland’s Environment)
• tree planting programmes undertaken in partnership with private landowners, schools, and local community groups
• reducing the ecological footprint of Council’s own operations and working towards the following:

• reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 40% by 2040 (based on 1990 levels)
• reducing waste by 30% by 2018 to reflect targets in the draft waste management and minimisation plan
• reducing Council’s energy use by 15% by 2014 (and a subsequent 5% each following year);
• reducing Council’s water use by 30% by 2040.

BOX 8.2 The Auckland Energy and Climate Change Mitigation Strategy

• public transport, travel demand management, alternative fuels (e.g. biofuels), electric vehicle technologies and fuel-efficient vehicles
• pricing mechanisms (e.g. the NZ ETS, parking charges and road pricing)
• integrated land-use and transport patterns
• efficient transport networks and operations
• renewable and distributed energy generation
• diversification (location, type and scale) of energy sources available in Auckland
• energy efficiency and conservation
• new and emerging technologies (e.g. advanced metering and smart grid networks)
• sustainable, energy-efficient buildings (e.g. residential, commercial and industrial building standards, retrofits and alternative low-emission energy sources), street lighting and low-impact design
• low-emission precincts, neighbourhoods, communities and development zones
• waste management and minimisation practices
• agriculture, forestry and green infrastructure (e.g. green roofs, urban allotments)
• Council leading by example in its own operations and services as a catalyst for change
• carbon sequestration
• behavioural change, education and awareness

Figure 8.3 Potential Emissions Abatement Pathway*

* Initial independent analysis was based on a 20-year timeframe which has since been extended to 30 years. Further analysis will be undertaken in developing the Auckland ECCM strategy.

496_ Auckland’s future spatial form is important because it can mitigate and adapt to the effects of climate change. The basic characteristics of a quality compact city (see Section D: Auckland’s High Level Development Strategy) improve energy efficiency and reduce GHG emissions. Benefits include:

• potential for greater use of public transport, and walking and cycling options (see Chapter 13: Auckland’s Transport), which benefit Aucklanders’ health as well as lowering emissions
• neighbourhoods that have a greater concentration of services and facilities within walking or cycling distance
• high-density and mixed land-use patterns which reduce the demand for travel and shorten trips
• new energy-efficient terraced housing or multi-storey dwellings that use materials with better thermal properties and have reduced exposed surface areas for heat loss or gain
• potential for more efficient infrastructure (such as efficient pumping of water and wastewater over shorter distances in larger diameter pipes)
• improved resilience of transport and other networks and an ability to manage peak demands and resource scarcities, including peak oil.^*

* ‘Peak oil’ can be defined as the time when the production of oil in the world is at its highest level and thereafter will decline or plateau.

497_ Although achieving a quality compact Auckland will be a major step forward, significant opportunities exist for further reductions in energy use and emissions. Pursuing a low-carbon future will require major changes in terms of Auckland’s land-use patterns and urban development, the development of sustainable transport options, structural change in sectors of the economy, and widespread behavioural change for all Aucklanders.

Transitioning to a sustainable eco-economy

498_ There are many good reasons to strive towards a low-carbon economy, also referred to as a sustainable eco-economy (see Chapter 6: Auckland’s Economy). The low-carbon market is the fastest- growing globally, estimated to be worth £4.3 trillion by 2015. New Zealand Trade and Enterprise⁵³ notes that a clean (low-carbon) economy could result in a $150 billion high-value, low-carbon export economy for New Zealand by 2025. The opportunities that a low-carbon economy provides centre on development, commercialisation, deployment of clean technologies and smart thinking to transform existing sectors and create dynamic new ones, particularly low-carbon sectors.

499_ Although climate change policies will demand some initial investment, the costs of inaction will be higher, as mitigation becomes increasingly expensive and inaccessible.⁵⁴ Economic growth that locks in a high-carbon future is both undesirable and unsustainable. The path towards a low-carbon economy, supported by green growth, enables development that achieves both economic and environmental objectives (see Chapter 6: Auckland’s Economy). Auckland has the opportunity to be a world leader on climate change solutions through maximizing the growth of its innovative and creative businesses, and firmly establishing Auckland as an internationally competitive and resilient city.

Directive 8.2

Protect, enhance and increase Auckland’s green infrastructure networks.

500_ Green infrastructure refers to a strategically planned and delivered network of high-quality green spaces and other environmental features that deliver ecological services and quality of life benefits required by the communities they serve.

501_ Our forests and planting programmes, whether on our regional parks network (e.g. the Waitākere and Hunua Ranges) or on private land (e.g. riparian planting), play an important role in mitigating climate change through removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (or carbon sequestration). Such programmes contribute to a range of environmental outcomes (e.g. biodiversity protection and improved health of streams), and these ‘carbon sinks’ provide potential revenue streams to land owners, who obtain carbon credits through the NZ ETS and Permanent Forest Sink initiative. Auckland Council is committed to increasing the number of trees on reserves and streets, and to encouraging appropriate levels of planting in existing neighbourhoods and new developments. Our commitment to valuing natural heritage and ‘greening’ Auckland’s expanding network of open public spaces (see Chapter 7: Auckland’s Environment) provides for a more attractive city, while reducing GHG emissions (carbon sequestration) and improving community resilience to the effects of climate change and resource scarcity, by supporting local food production. Chapter 10: Urban Auckland includes environmental design principles which will guide and support the integration of green infrastructure in new development.

502_ An efficient, secure, affordable and environmentally responsible energy system is vital to the economic prosperity of Auckland and New Zealand. Past supply disruptions and sudden price increases have highlighted Auckland’s vulnerability and poor energy resilience. Auckland must have certainty that it can secure long-term, reliable and affordable energy, and renewable sources.

503_ ‘Energy’ is considered to encompass:

• all primary energy sources – such as coal, oil (petrol, diesel, fuel-oil), LPG, gas, wind, solar, wave, tidal, biomass, geothermal
• all secondary energy sources – such as electricity, heat, transport fuels
• all energy requirements – residential, commercial, industrial, transport, network utilities
• the design and performance of energy systems, infrastructure or networks, laws, rules, regulations and plans that influence energy supply, demand and systems development.

Energy use, efficiency and affordability

504_ Within the next 25 years, global energy consumption is expected to increase by one third. By comparison, Auckland’s projected energy demand will increase by approximately 65% by 2031. Without effective intervention, Auckland will become increasingly reliant on imported energy supplies and vulnerable to increases in the cost of energy.

Directive 8.3

Improve energy efficiency and conservation (in both supply and use) through:

• a quality compact city form that is well integrated with a multi-modal transport system
• a transport system that reduces reliance on non-renewable resources and improves energy efficiency
• energy-efficient development and design, by (i) ensuring development is assessed using an appropriate ratings tool along with provision in Auckland’s Unitary Plan and (ii) supporting the retrofitting and redevelopment of residential, commercial and industrial buildings.

505_ Auckland currently spends around $5 billion per year on energy. Forecasts for increasing energy demand and energy prices indicate that by 2031 Auckland could be spending 10% of its gross regional product on energy, which is nearly double current levels. Future increases in household energy consumption and/or energy prices present the very real risk of more Aucklanders experiencing fuel poverty, or finding it difficult to afford a quality lifestyle.

506_ Our existing buildings are responsible for a large share of Auckland’s energy consumption and GHG emissions. Significant improvement in the energy efficiency of our buildings is required to moderate the projected increase in energy demand.

507_ Increased energy efficiency provides tremendous co-benefits through reduced energy costs, enhanced property values, and health benefits associated with lower levels of air pollution. Lower energy demand may reduce or delay the need to build new energy generation facilities.

508_ It is estimated that between 10% and 30% of the energy costs of most businesses and households can be reduced through better energy management. It is also estimated that applying technologies currently available can save 30% to 40% of energy use and GHG emissions in new buildings, when evaluated on a life-cycle basis.⁵⁵

509_ This Plan sets out ambitious policies to improve the energy efficiency of the built environment. They relate to residential, commercial, and industrial building design, urban design, transport networks, energy retrofits, and improved technologies.

510_ Development proposals will be expected to consider energy efficiency and low-carbon energy sources in the design and operation of all new and refurbished buildings through adherence to environmental design principles (see Box 10.2) and by ensuring residential, commercial and industrial building design is assessed against appropriate performance standards. The Unitary Plan will support and promote low-carbon, energy-efficient design through the introduction of sustainable development standards for new development, supplemented by design guidance and case studies within the Auckland Design Manual (see Chapter 10: Urban Auckland).

511_ Auckland Council will work with key energy stakeholders to investigate and promote mechanisms to support and to incentivise opportunities for sustainable refurbishment and retrofit programmes for residential, commercial and industrial buildings. This will include the installation of renewable energy and low-emissions energy technologies, as well as requirements for the public disclosure of sustainable performance of buildings at the point of sale. Auckland Council will exemplify sustainable building design through the management, refurbishment and renewal of its assets.

Directive 8.4

Increase energy resilience by diversifying the location, type and scale of energy sources and fostering greater use of renewable energy resources available in the region.

Energy generation and supply

512_ Auckland’s economy is dependent on imported fossil fuels, primarily due to a high usage of private motor vehicles. This means that Auckland is vulnerable to international supply or price disruptions. Nearly all of the energy used in Auckland comes from outside the region. A more efficient transport system, (with a wide range of transport modes and a greater diversity of transport fuels and alternative energy technologies that reduce reliance on non-renewable resources), is crucial to transitioning to an efficient, secure, affordable and environmentally responsible energy system (see Chapter 13: Auckland’s Transport).

513_ Auckland has a number of renewable energy generation opportunities which are likely to be economically attractive in the future, and which could assist in reducing the greenhouse gas intensity of electricity generation. Auckland will investigate diverse opportunities, including large-scale wind power, small-scale solar photovoltaics, and solar hot water. The potential for greater uptake of renewable energy is often constrained by economic viability and balancing local values (e.g. natural landscapes and loss of amenity) with broader national benefits.

514_ To assist new electricity generation within Auckland and the provision of the advanced energy networks, Auckland Council will improve regulatory and planning processes to support the diversification (the location, type and scale) of energy sources. Auckland Council will foster greater use of renewable energy resources available in the region through statutory and non-statutory instruments including the Unitary Plan (see Chapter 9: Rural Auckland, for local renewable electricity generation; see Chapter 12: Auckland’s Physical and Social Infrastructure Priority 1 for further details of energy infrastructure provision).

515_ Auckland Council and key partners will address critical energy issues through the development of an integrated Energy and Climate Change Mitigation strategy, recognising the national significance of the use and development of renewable electricity generation activities.

516_ Auckland will also seek opportunities on catalytic projects and innovative funding models (for example public private partnerships) to fast-track the adoption of new and emerging low-carbon technologies.

517_ Whatever measures we take to reduce GHG emissions, the levels already in the atmosphere are expected to continue to affect and change the climate over our children’s lifetimes. Therefore, as well as working to reduce emissions, we need to prepare for the effects of climate change and adapt to withstand the projected impacts.

518_ ‘Adaptation’ is the process of identifying climate risks and opportunities for the region, assessing the options to respond, and implementing the most appropriate actions at the time. Because our climate will keep changing and more information on climate change will become available over time, our responses will also change.

519_ Based on current knowledge, Auckland could experience more extreme variability in its local climate in the short, medium and long term. Auckland is likely to see hotter average temperatures, changes in wind and rainfall patterns, more frequent extreme weather events such as droughts and floods, and rising sea levels, with higher storm surge and waves (see Box 8.1). This will trigger changes and create uncertainties for the natural and built environment, the economy, public health, and lifestyles.

520_ Future development of land for housing, business, and infrastructure (for roading and drainage) can be located away from coastal and low-lying areas vulnerable to sea-level rise, flooding and coastal erosion. Alternatively the protection of structures can be built into design. The Development Strategy (Section D) will take account of the projected effects of climate change. Map 7.7 (see Chapter 7: Auckland’s Environment) depicts the areas of land that may be affected by sea-level rise in the future.

521_ Climate change, in particular rising temperatures, changes in rainfall patterns and ozone depletion, will impact on human health and on natural eco-systems. Some sensitive indigenous species and ecosystems may be significantly affected. The impact of climate change on invasive species and changes in the interactions between native and introduced species may be one of the greatest challenges. For example, some introduced species could switch from being relatively harmless to becoming invasive pests. Further, new pests could be introduced which could compete with, or even replace native species. Some, such as mosquitoes, bring the risk of new tropical diseases; for example, dengue fever. Opportunities could arise to grow new crops in the region, which would diversify Auckland’s agricultural production.

BOX 8.3 Sea -level rise

522_ The potential impacts on human health and wellbeing are wide-ranging, and may include an increase in tropical diseases and heat stress-related conditions. Some local communities within Auckland will be more exposed to climate change effects. As this could particularly affect those living in susceptible areas, and those who have fewer skills and financial resources, it will need to be considered when developing strategies to respond to climate change, so that inequalities can be minimised. Building resilience throughout all communities within Auckland will be critical (see Chapter 1: Auckland’s People).

523_ It is likely that other countries will be more severely affected by climate change, making Auckland a popular destination for ‘environmental refugees’, particularly from Pacific Island countries. This creates opportunities for growth but also carries the risk of housing shortages and overcrowding, and creates pressures on social services and social cohesion.

524_ A further risk is that climate change could impact severely on the distribution of food production across the globe, contributing to a global food crisis. This highlights the importance of local food production and the need to foster selfsufficiency in order to increase resilience and independence.

525_ As the effects of climate change are still uncertain and subject to change over time, it will be necessary to monitor climate change projections and to gather local environmental data. This will enable us to identify the most appropriate climate change responses in relation to the risks, costs and benefits involved, and to adapt plans as more information becomes available. Where there is uncertainty or insufficient data, it will be wise to take a cautious, risk-based approach in line with the principles set out in the New Zealand Coastal Policy Statement (2010), the Civil Defence Emergency Management Act (2002), and the Resource Management Act (1991).

526_ The wide-ranging impacts of climate change make it necessary to develop a co-ordinated management response which covers all potentially affected Council functions, provides regulations for public and private land, and guidance for businesses and local communities. Specifically, we will:

• work with key partners to undertake monitoring, spatial identification and assessment of the effects of climate change. This will foster greater understanding of the opportunities and risks to local communities, the economy, and critical infrastructure, and the vulnerability of the natural environment
• research international ‘best practice’ on responses to climate change impacts
• consider the costs of measures to adapt to climate change and balance them against the risks and benefits involved. Consult with affected key stakeholders, tangata whenua and local communities to identify what level of risk is acceptable to them, and what level of cost is deemed manageable to the community
• investigate ways to develop and implement flexible, risk-based land-use planning tools that can be applied to existing and new developments to reduce exposure to climate change impacts. These may include minimum setbacks, floor levels, innovative building design, and, if necessary, managed retreats, and can be incorporated into the Unitary Plan progressively over time. Adopt a cautious approach where insufficient information is available
• consider the effects of climate change when determining the location and design capacity of new developments and critical infrastructure, or when undertaking any significant upgrades or replacement of infrastructure. Adapt asset management plans to respond to the anticipated effects of climate change
• protect, promote and enhance the quality of indigenous ecosystems, and of new and existing green infrastructure (including green roofs) to support adaptation to, and mitigation of (i.e. carbon sequestration) climate change. Consider planting programmes to increase the resilience of areas prone to erosion
• provide information and education on climate change to local communities and businesses.

Directive 8.5

Identify the opportunities and risks associated with climate change. Increase the resilience of Auckland’s communities, natural resources and built environments and their ability to adapt to the impacts of climate change. Take a cautious, risk-based approach where there is uncertainty on the effects of climate change, and monitor and adapt to environmental change over time.

527_ Productive food-growing land is being compromised significantly in some parts of the world: ongoing urbanisation and climate change may exacerbate this. Global resource scarcity, peak oil, and climate change add to the value of local food production and place an additional premium on Auckland’s and New Zealand’s productive capacity. Food resilience is likely to be a prized element of city living in the future, and it is essential that this dynamic is recognised in planning for Auckland’s future.

Directive 8.6

Recognise, promote and strengthen the value and contribution of local urban and rural food systems to improve resilience, resource use efficiency and community food security.

528_ To contribute to the above directive, Auckland will examine local (urban and rural) food production and distribution capacity (current and potential), the degree of resilience, and opportunities to protect and enhance Auckland’s local food production.